The Rise of the Eastern Gangas

Towards the close of Nandapravanjanavarman’s rule, a new power, the Eastern Gangas, began to emerge and consolidate their control in the Trikalinga territory. They expanded their sway over the Kalinga region, establishing Dantapura as their capital. The year 498 CE is considered the beginning of the Ganga era, signifying the shift in regional power from the declining Matharas to the ascendant Eastern Gangas.

In summary, Nandapravanjanavarman’s reign represents the twilight of the Mathara dynasty in Kalinga. While he inherited a prestigious title, the political fortunes of his kingdom were on the wane, paving the way for the rise of the Eastern Gangas, who would go on to establish a powerful and long-lasting empire in Odisha. The Mathara rule, despite its eventual decline, is recognized for providing a sound administrative setup and fostering Sanskrit literature in the Kalinga region for approximately 150 years.

Administration and Society

The Matharas developed a well-structured administrative system:

• Officials: High state dignitaries included the Desaksapataladhikrta (provincial head of records and accounts, an office that appears to have been hereditary), Dandanayaka (a general, military commander, or judicial magistrate, sometimes also a provincial governor), and Kumaramatyas (ministers, sometimes serving as district officers or high central secretariat officials). Lower cadre officials included Chatas and Bhatas (performing duties similar to modern policemen or irregular soldiers). Dutas or Dutakas carried royal orders to local officials.
• Fiscal Units: They created new fiscal units, such as the district of Mahendrabhoga in the area of the Mahendra Mountains and Dantayavagubhoga, which likely supplied resources like ivory and rice-gruel.
• Land Grants (Agraharas): The Matharas made endowments of land and income from villages, known as agraharas, primarily to support the religious and educational activities of Brahmanas. While generally tax-free elsewhere, some Mathara agraharas were subject to taxes.
• Timekeeping: They introduced the practice of dividing the year into twelve lunar months in the mid-5th century CE, replacing the older system of three four-month units.
• Religion: The Matharas were followers of Hinduism, and their reign saw the promotion of temple construction, contributing to the early medieval architectural styles of eastern India.

Decline

The Mathara dynasty faced challenges from neighboring dynasties, including the Vasisthas and the Pitrbhaktas (who may have been rivals or successors to the Matharas), and later the Eastern Gangas. Internal conflicts and continuous invasions gradually weakened their kingdom, leading to their eventual decline by the end of the 5th or early 6th century CE. Their fall paved the way for the rise of other regional powers in Kalinga.

1. The Nalas (c. 4th – 8th Century CE):
   • The Nalas established their kingdom in the Trikalinga region, encompassing modern Koraput, Kalahandi, and parts of Bastar.
   • Their capital was Pushkari, and their rule saw a revival of Vaishnavism.
   • Founded by Vrishadhvaja (around 400 CE), prominent Nala rulers included Varaharaja, Bhavadatta Varman, and Skandavarman.

1. Origin and Territory:

• Legendary Lineage: The Nalas are sometimes linked to the legendary King Nala of the Nishadha Kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata, though concrete proof for this connection is lacking.
• Core Territory: Their core territory was centered around the Bastar region (modern-day Chhattisgarh) and extended into adjacent areas of Odisha. This area was known as South Kosala.
• Capital: Their capital was likely Pushkari, identified by some scholars with modern Garhdhanora in Bastar district, and by others with Podagada in Koraput district, Odisha. Archaeological findings at Garhdhanora, including ruined temples and sculptures, lend support to its identification as Pushkari.

2. Prominent Rulers and Their Contributions: The Nalas are known through their coins and inscriptions. Key rulers include:

• Varaharaja: Paleographic evidence suggests he was the earliest of the known Nala kings who issued gold coins, indicating his sovereign status.
• Arthapati-Bhattaraka: Known from a copper-plate inscription and coins. His inscription was issued from Pushkari and suggests he was a devotee of Maheshvara (Shiva) and Mahasena (Kartikeya).
• Bhavadatta-varman: A significant ruler who is believed to have expanded the Nala territory. He is mentioned in inscriptions and coins.
• Skandavarman: The last prominent Nala king, known from the Podagada inscription. This inscription states that Skandavarman “retrieved the lost glory of the Nala family” and re-populated the deserted city of Pushkari. He is also credited with constructing a Vishnu shrine, indicating the growing influence of Vaishnavism during their rule. Skandavarman’s reign is often seen as a period of revival for the Nalas after earlier setbacks.

3. Conflicts and Decline:

• Vakataka Conflicts: The Nalas were frequently engaged in conflicts with the powerful Vakataka dynasty, who ruled parts of Vidarbha. At one point, the Nalas seem to have conquered the Vakataka capital of Nandivardhana, but they also suffered reverses against them.
• Chalukya and Sharabhapuriya Interactions: They also faced challenges from the Chalukyas and the Sharabhapuriyas, their northern neighbors, who may have contributed to their eventual decline.
• Supplantation by Panduvamshis: The Nalas were likely supplanted by the Panduvamshi dynasty in their core territories.
• Later Branch in Odisha: Despite the decline of the main line, one branch of the Nala dynasty appears to have continued ruling a smaller territory in Odisha until the 7th or 8th century CE. Later, descendants of the Nalas established the Khidisingi mandala in the modern Ganjam region of Odisha around the 9th-10th centuries CE, eventually leading to the Soroda dynasty.

4. Cultural and Religious Aspects:

• Patronage of Religions: The Nalas were patrons of both Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Skandavarman’s construction of a Vishnu shrine highlights their support for Vaishnavism. Their rule is considered by some scholars to have played a role in the efflorescence of Vaishnavism in South Kosala.
• Inscriptions and Administration: Their inscriptions, such as the Pushkari Copper Plate and the Podagada inscription, provide valuable insights into their administrative practices, land grants to Brahmins, and religious leanings. They maintained an organized state, likely influenced by the larger Gupta Empire, but also adapted to the local tribal cultures.

In summary, the Nalas, though sometimes overshadowed by more prominent imperial powers of the era, were a significant regional force in central-eastern India, including parts of present-day Odisha. Their rule, marked by military engagements and cultural patronage, contributed to the political and religious landscape of the region during the post-Gupta period, leaving behind a legacy primarily through their inscriptions and coins. Their influence, though fluctuating, extended over Western Odisha, particularly the Kalahandi-Koraput belt, for several centuries.

2. The Parvatadvarkas (c. 5th Century CE):
   • A lesser-known dynasty that emerged in the Belkhandi-Narla region of Kalahandi.
   • Parvatadvarka served as their capital, with Nandaraja and Tustikara being key rulers.

The Parvatadvarkas were a lesser-known dynasty that ruled a portion of ancient Odisha, specifically the Tel river valley in the region corresponding to modern-day Kalahandi district, primarily during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. Their capital was known as Parvatadvarka, which is often identified with the significant archaeological site of Asurgarh-Narla in Kalahandi.

Here’s a detailed look at the Parvatadvarkas:

Geographical Extent and Capital:

• The Parvatadvarkas held sway over the Tel river valley, which forms a crucial part of the western and southern regions of present-day Odisha.
• Their capital, Parvatadvarka, is believed to be the fortified urban complex of Asurgarh-Narla in Kalahandi. This site’s strategic location on ancient trade routes, along with archaeological findings (large brick structures, various artifacts), suggests it was a prominent center of power and culture.

Historical Context (5th Century CE Odisha):

The 5th century CE in Odisha was a period of political fragmentation following the decline of larger imperial powers like the Guptas. While Samudragupta’s invasion had a significant impact, many local dynasties emerged or re-asserted their independence in different parts of the region. The Parvatadvarkas were one such regional power, coexisting with or succeeding other dynasties in neighboring areas.

Other prominent dynasties and political entities in Odisha during or around the 5th century CE included:

• Matharas: Primarily ruling coastal Odisha (Kalinga) in the 4th-5th centuries CE.
• Nalas: Controlling parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha, particularly the Bastar and Koraput districts (upper Tel and Indravati valleys). The Nalas and Parvatadvarkas are often mentioned as contemporaries, with the Nalas ruling the forest lands and the Parvatadvarkas governing the former Mahakantara Janapada (middle and lower Tel valley).
• Rajarsitulyakulas: A royal house that controlled Dakshina Kosala, possibly succeeded by the Parvatadvarkas in some areas.
• Sharabhapuriyas: Ruling parts of present-day Chhattisgarh and Odisha during the 5th and 6th centuries, possibly as Gupta vassals initially.

Known Rulers: Epigraphic records, such as the Terasinga copper plate and Baradiapadar (or Pippalpadar) copper plate, have shed some light on the Parvatadvarkas. The known rulers include:

• Sobhanaraja
• Tustikara
• Shri Nandaraja Deva

Religious Affiliation: The Parvatadvarkas were notable for their devotion to the goddess Stambhesvari. Archaeological excavations at Asurgarh have revealed a large brick structure believed to be a temple dedicated to this deity, further supporting their religious leanings.

Significance: Despite being a relatively lesser-known dynasty compared to some of the more prominent empires in Indian history, the Parvatadvarkas played a role in the political and cultural landscape of ancient Odisha. Their rule in the Tel river valley, centered around Asurgarh-Narla, indicates a thriving regional power that contributed to the diverse tapestry of post-Gupta period kingdoms in the region. Their patronage of Stambhesvari also highlights the prevalence and importance of local cults and goddesses in the religious practices of the time.

In summary, the Parvatadvarkas were a regional dynasty of the 5th-6th century CE, primarily based in the Tel river valley of western Odisha (Kalahandi), with their capital at Parvatadvarka (Asurgarh-Narla). They were devotees of Stambhesvari and were among the various local powers that emerged in Odisha after the decline of the Gupta Empire.

3. The Mudgalas:
   • Known through copper plate grants, the Mudgalas ruled over North Tosali (northern coastal Odisha).
   • King Sambhuyasa initially had conflicts with Lokavigraha but was eventually ousted by Durjaya King Prithvimaharaja.

The Mudgalas were a minor but significant dynasty that held sway over a part of ancient Odisha, specifically North Tosali, during a transitional period in the region’s history, roughly from the late 6th to early 7th centuries CE. Their rule was characterized by conflicts with other emerging regional powers and ultimately proved to be short-lived.

Here’s a detailed account of the Mudgalas over Odisha:

1. Historical Context: Following the decline of the mighty Gupta Empire (around the 5th-6th centuries CE), various regional kingdoms and dynasties emerged across India, including in Odisha (ancient Kalinga, Utkala, and Tosali). This period was marked by shifting allegiances, constant territorial disputes, and the rise of several smaller powers. Among these were the Matharas, Vigrahas, Early Gangas, Sailodbhavas, and the Mudgalas.

2. Geographical Extent: The Mudgalas primarily ruled over North Tosali. Tosali was a significant administrative division of ancient Kalinga, and its exact boundaries varied over time. North Tosali likely encompassed areas around modern-day Puri and parts of the coastal region of Odisha. Their presence is evidenced by copper plate grants found in places like Erbang, Soro, and Patiakela.

3. Key Rulers and Conflicts: The most notable ruler associated with the Mudgalas in Odisha was King Sambhuyasa. His reign was largely defined by his ambition to expand Mudgala power and the resultant conflicts with neighboring dynasties, particularly the Vigrahas.

• Conflict with Lokavigraha: Sambhuyasa aimed to subjugate Kalinga, but his ambitions were initially thwarted by Lokavigraha, a powerful Vigraha ruler. Lokavigraha inflicted a defeat upon Sambhuyasa, shattering his dream of a wider dominion.
• Revenge and Brief Supremacy: Around 603 CE, Sambhuyasa managed to avenge his earlier defeat by driving out Lokavigraha from South Tosali. This marked a brief period of Mudgala ascendancy over Tosali.
• Downfall by Prithvimaharaja: However, this triumph was short-lived. Sambhuyasa’s newly asserted power over South Tosali was soon challenged and ultimately ended by Prithvimaharaja, the powerful King of Pistapura (modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh). Prithvimaharaja’s victory effectively brought an end to Mudgala rule over Tosali.

4. Sources of Information: Our knowledge of the Mudgalas largely comes from:

• Copper Plate Grants: Inscriptions on copper plates, such as those found at Erbang, Soro, and Patiakela, provide crucial genealogical and political information about the Mudgala kings and their interactions with other rulers. These grants often record land donations and political events.
• Contemporary Dynastic Records: Inscriptions and records of contemporary dynasties like the Vigrahas and Sailodbhavas also mention the Mudgalas, primarily in the context of their conflicts and alliances.

5. Legacy: The Mudgalas, while not establishing a long-lasting empire like some of their contemporaries, represent an important phase in the early medieval history of Odisha. Their struggles for dominance highlight the fluid political landscape of the region after the Gupta period. Their existence underscores the emergence of various local powers vying for control and shaping the political geography of ancient Odisha.

In summary, the Mudgalas were a ruling family in North Tosali during a period of political fragmentation in Odisha. Led by King Sambhuyasa, they engaged in significant conflicts with the Vigrahas, achieving a brief period of regional influence before their eventual defeat by Prithvimaharaja. Their history, though fleeting, contributes to the complex tapestry of ancient Odishan political developments.

4. The Vigrahas (late 6th Century CE):
   • Ruled over South Tosali or Kalinga-rashtra, near modern-day Puri and Ganjam.
   • Notable rulers included Prithivi Vigraha and Loka Vigraha.

The late 6th century CE in Odisha (ancient Kalinga) was a period of political flux following the decline of the Gupta Empire. Several regional powers emerged, and among them, the Vigrahas played a significant, albeit relatively short-lived, role.

Here’s a detailed look at the Vigrahas over Odisha:

1. Rise and Territory:

• The Vigrahas came to power in the late 6th century CE, establishing their political center in South Tosali.
• South Tosali roughly encompassed the modern-day districts of Balasore, Cuttack, and Puri in coastal Odisha.
• While the exact origins are somewhat debated, it’s suggested they might have been viceroys or feudatories of the Guptas before asserting their independence.

2. Key Rulers and Conflicts:

• Prithivi Vigraha (c. 575–600 CE): He is the first known significant ruler of the Vigraha dynasty. Prithivi Vigraha engaged in conflicts with the Mudgala king Sambhuyasa, who ruled over North Tosali.

Prithivi Vigraha was a significant ruler of the Vigraha dynasty, who reigned in the region of South Toshali or Kalinga-rashtra (modern-day Puri and Ganjam in coastal Odisha, India) during the latter half of the 6th century CE, specifically from approximately 575 to 600 CE.

Here’s a breakdown of what is known about him:

• Dynasty: He belonged to the Vigraha dynasty, which ruled parts of Odisha. His successor was Loka Vigraha (c. 600–630 CE). The Vigrahas’ control over Toshali ended around 604 CE, possibly due to an invasion by the Mudgalas or other regional powers like Shashanka.
• Territory: Prithivi Vigraha’s kingdom was centered around South Toshali, encompassing areas like modern-day Puri and Ganjam.
• Feudatories: Inscriptions indicate that he had feudatories under his rule. For instance, Maharaja Dharmaraja, who ruled at Padmakholi, was a feudatory of Prithivi Vigraha Bhattarika, the Governor of Kalingarastra. This suggests a hierarchical administrative structure within his domain.
• Historical Significance:
  • Gupta Suzerainty: An inscription from his time (Gupta year 250, corresponding to 569-570 CE) is particularly important as it provides evidence of Gupta suzerainty over the Kalinga country, a fact that was previously unknown from other sources. This inscription records the grant of a village (Ardhakamanduka) and another locality (Chandan Vataka) in the Parakkala marga visaya, granted by his feudatory Maharaja Dharmaraja, under the authority of Prithivi Vigraha, who is mentioned as “Governor of Kalingarastra.”
  • Succession and Decline: The Vigraha dynasty eventually faced challenges, and their rule in Toshali ended around 599-600 CE with the invasion of South Toshali, followed by the complete end of their suzerainty by 604 CE.

While detailed accounts of Prithivi Vigraha’s reign are limited, the epigraphic evidence, particularly the inscription from the Gupta year 250, makes him a crucial figure for understanding the political landscape and the extent of Gupta influence in Eastern India during the late 6th century CE.

• Loka Vigraha (c. 600–630 CE): Prithivi Vigraha’s successor, Loka Vigraha, initially achieved success against Sambhuyasa, even defeating him. However, the conflict between the Vigrahas and Mudgalas was prolonged.

Loka Vigraha: Successor of Prithivi Vigraha and the Conflict with the Mudgalas

Loka Vigraha was a ruler of the Vigraha dynasty, which held sway over South Tosali (encompassing areas around modern-day Puri and Ganjam in Odisha) in the late 6th and early 7th centuries CE. He succeeded his father, Prithivi Vigraha, who had also been involved in conflicts with neighboring powers.

• Initial Success against Sambhuyasa: Loka Vigraha is noted for his initial military successes. He achieved a victory against Sambhuyasa, a ruler of the Mudgala dynasty. The Mudgalas controlled North Tosali (around the Balasore and Cuttack districts). This indicates a dynamic and often contentious political landscape in the region, with various small kingdoms vying for supremacy.
• Prolonged Conflict with the Mudgalas: Despite Loka Vigraha’s initial triumph, the conflict between the Vigrahas and the Mudgalas was not easily resolved. It was a prolonged struggle for control over the Tosali region. Historical accounts suggest that while Loka Vigraha inflicted an early defeat on Sambhuyasa, the Mudgalas continued to pose a significant challenge.
• Eventually Ousted: The protracted conflict ultimately did not favor the Vigrahas. Sambhuyasa of the Mudgala dynasty, despite his earlier defeat by Loka Vigraha, eventually lost ground to a powerful new force. The Mudgalas themselves were later ousted by the Durjaya king Prithvimaharaja. This suggests a complex web of alliances and rivalries that characterized the post-Gupta period in Odisha.
• Historical Context and Decline: The reign of Loka Vigraha, like that of other Vigraha rulers, falls into a period of political fragmentation in Odisha following the decline of the Gupta Empire. Various local dynasties, including the Vigrahas and Mudgalas, emerged and contested for power. The Vigraha claim to suzerainty over Tosali eventually ended around 604 CE, likely due to the ongoing conflicts with the Mudgalas and the emergence of other dominant powers like the Gauda king Shashanka, who conquered the region around that time.

In essence, Loka Vigraha was a significant figure in the history of early medieval Odisha, known for his involvement in the intricate power struggles of the time, particularly his initial success against and subsequent prolonged conflict with the Mudgala ruler Sambhuyasa. His reign represents a phase in the broader political shifts that shaped the region after the decline of larger imperial powers.

• Struggle for Tosali: The struggle for supremacy over Tosali was a defining feature of this period. The Mudgalas, through their copper plate grants (like Erbang, Soro, and Patiakela), provide insights into their side of the conflict. While Loka Vigraha initially had the upper hand, Sambhuyasa eventually avenged his defeat and drove Loka Vigraha out of South Tosali around 603 CE.

3. Relationship with other Dynasties:

• Sailodbhavas: The early Sailodbhava rulers, such as Dharmaraja I (c. 553-575 CE) and Madhavaraja I (c. 575-600 CE), were feudatories of the Vigrahas. Inscriptions like the Sumandala charter (570 CE) and the Kanasa copper plate grant (600 CE) confirm their subordinate status under Prithivi Vigraha and Loka Vigraha, respectively. This indicates the Vigrahas’ considerable influence and suzerainty over parts of Odisha, particularly the Kongoda-mandala region (around modern Ganjam, Khordha, and Puri districts).
• Gauda Kingdom (Shashanka): The Vigraha’s influence in Tosali was eventually challenged from the north. Around the beginning of the 7th century CE, the powerful Gauda king Shashanka launched an attack and occupied North Tosali. This significantly weakened the Vigrahas and contributed to their decline. The end of Vigraha suzerainty over Tosali is estimated around 604 CE.

4. Cultural and Religious Aspects:

• There is some indication that the Vigrahas might have been instrumental in introducing or popularizing the worship of Shiva and Varaha Vishnu in Odisha. The Lokanath temple in Puri is even speculated to have been built during the rule of the Vigrahas, possibly by Loka Vigraha himself.
• The goddess Biraja of Jajpur, a significant deity in Odisha, also finds mention in copper plate grants of the Vigraha dynasty, suggesting their patronage and reverence towards her.

5. Decline: The Vigrahas’ rule in Odisha was relatively brief. Their continuous struggle with the Mudgalas and, more significantly, the invasion and expansion of the Gauda king Shashanka from the north, led to their decline by the early 7th century CE. Their former feudatories, the Sailodbhavas, capitalized on this power vacuum and asserted their independence, eventually becoming a dominant force in Kongoda.

In summary, the Vigrahas were an important regional power in coastal Odisha during the late 6th and early 7th centuries CE. They controlled South Tosali and exerted suzerainty over early Sailodbhava rulers. Their reign was marked by conflicts with the Mudgalas and ultimately brought to an end by the rising power of Shashanka of Gauda. Despite their short duration, they left their mark on the political and possibly the religious landscape of ancient Odisha.

Transition to Post-Gupta Era:

As the Gupta Empire declined by the mid-6th century CE due to internal weaknesses and invasions (particularly from the Hunas), these regional kingdoms in Odisha gained greater autonomy and expanded their influence. This period laid the groundwork for the emergence of later powerful dynasties in Odisha, such as the Sailodbhavas (who rose around 550 CE and ruled parts of the region until the 8th century CE, often succeeding the Vigrahas) and the Eastern Gangas (who gained prominence from the 6th century CE, initially in the southern parts of Kalinga, and later unified large parts of Odisha).

In summary, the Gupta period in Odisha was not one of direct imperial rule over the entire region, but rather one of significant cultural, administrative, and economic influence. This influence, coupled with the weakening of central Gupta authority, allowed various regional kingdoms to flourish, shaping the political and cultural identity of ancient Odisha for centuries to come.

During the Gupta period, Kalinga was divided into several smaller principalities. Various sub-regional kingdoms emerged, including:

• Matharas (c. 4th – 5th Century CE): A prominent dynasty that unified parts of Odisha, known for their contributions to temple construction and patronage of religion.
• Nalas (c. 5th – 6th Century CE): Ruled the Trikalinga region (modern Koraput and Kalahandi), with their capital at Pushkari. They are associated with the revival of Vaishnavism.
• Parvatadvarkas (c. 5th Century CE): A lesser-known dynasty in the Kalahandi region.
• Mudgalas: Ruled over North Tosali.

Disclaimer: The information presented in this blog post regarding “The Rise of the Eastern Gangas” is based on available historical records and scholarly interpretations. History is a complex and evolving field, and different historians may offer alternative perspectives. This post is intended to provide a general overview and stimulate interest in the subject, not to serve as an exhaustive academic study. Readers are encouraged to consult diverse sources for a comprehensive understanding.