Gupta Empire.

While not as extensively documented as some other major dynasties, archaeological findings, particularly inscriptions and coinage, provide valuable insights into the Murunda dynasty’s presence, administrative practices, and their role in the political and economic landscape of ancient Odisha.

Gupta Period and Regional Kingdoms (c. 4th – 6th Century CE):

The Gupta Period (c. 4th – 6th Century CE) marked a significant era in Indian history, often referred to as a “Golden Age” for its advancements in art, science, and administration. While the Gupta Empire’s direct control primarily covered northern and central India, its influence extended considerably to regional kingdoms, including those in Odisha (ancient Kalinga).

Gupta Influence over Odisha

Odisha, known as Kalinga in ancient times, held strategic importance due to its coastal location and control over vital trade routes. Though not directly annexed into the core Gupta Empire, it was significantly influenced by Gupta hegemony, particularly during the reign of Samudragupta (c. 335-375 CE).

• Samudragupta’s Southern Campaigns: The Allahabad Pillar inscription is a crucial source that details Samudragupta’s extensive southern conquests. It mentions Kalinga among the regions that submitted to Gupta dominance, either through direct conquest or by accepting suzerainty. This campaign undoubtedly had a profound impact on the political landscape of Odisha, leading to the emergence or re-alignment of regional powers under a broader Gupta influence.
• Administrative and Economic Impact: While the Guptas introduced a more centralized administrative structure, local rulers in Kalinga, such as the Matharas, adopted and adapted elements of Gupta administrative practices. This included systems of land grants to Brahmins and temples. Odisha’s coastal location facilitated thriving maritime trade, which prospered under the economic stability brought by the Gupta era. Ports like Tamralipti (though primarily in Bengal, connected to Odisha’s trade networks) were crucial for trade with Southeast Asia, bringing prosperity to the region.
• Cultural and Religious Influence:
  • Art and Architecture: The “Gupta style” of architecture, characterized by its elegance and often featuring flat-roofed, square-sanctuary temples, influenced temple construction in Odisha. Early stone temples in Odisha, like the Parasurameswara Temple in Bhubaneswar, bear stylistic resemblances to Gupta prototypes. The Gupta period’s emphasis on intricate carvings and refined artistry also shaped Odishan temple sculptures, with depictions of Hindu mythology showcasing remarkable detail and grace.
  • Hinduism: The Guptas’ promotion of Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism and Shaivism, resonated in Odisha. Temples in Odisha began to reflect Gupta-era iconography, including depictions of the Dashavatara (ten incarnations of Vishnu).
  • Sanskrit Literature: The literary renaissance of the Gupta period, especially the flourishing of Sanskrit, extended to Odisha. Local rulers adopted Sanskrit for royal inscriptions and official texts, indicating a cultural integration with Gupta ideals.
  • Buddhism and Jainism: Despite the Gupta emphasis on Hinduism, Odisha retained its Buddhist heritage. Sites like Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri, and Udayagiri continued to thrive as significant Buddhist centers, demonstrating a degree of cultural syncretism.

Regional Kingdoms in Odisha (c. 4th – 6th Century CE)

Following Samudragupta’s campaigns and during the waning years of the Gupta Empire, several regional dynasties rose to prominence in Odisha, often acknowledging a nominal Gupta suzerainty initially but gradually asserting their independence.

1. The Matharas (c. 4th – 5th Century CE):
   • Emerging in the coastal region around Mahendragiri, the Matharas were a significant power in Kalinga.
   • They are known to have adopted and adapted Gupta administrative systems and cultural styles.
   • Notable Mathara rulers included Shakti-varman, Prabhanjana-varman, and Ananta-shakti-varman. The latter lost the southern part of his kingdom to Madhava Varma II.

The Mathara dynasty ruled the Kalinga region of eastern India (modern-day Odisha and parts of northern Andhra Pradesh) during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. Their emergence marked a significant period in the post-Gupta era, as they filled the power vacuum left by the decline of larger empires.

Rise to Power and Territory

The Matharas rose to prominence after the South India campaign of the Gupta emperor Samudragupta, which around 350 CE led to the temporary weakening of existing powers in Kalinga. The Mathara family, which seems to have held a high social and political status and had matrimonial alliances with powerful families of Kosala and South India, seized this opportunity.

Their territory primarily encompassed the area between the present-day Ganjam district of Odisha in the north and the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh in the south. While some claims suggest their rule extended as far as the Mahanadi River in the north and the Krishna River in the south, these are often considered exaggerations, with their core domain being Kalinga.

Key Rulers and Their Contributions

The Mathara dynasty saw several notable rulers who contributed to its expansion and administration:

• Vishakha Varman (c. 350-360 CE): He is often considered the founder of the Mathara principality in Kalinga, with his headquarters initially at Sripura (identified with modern Batiasripua near Paralakhemundi in Ganjam district).

Vishakha Varman was a significant ruler of the Mathara dynasty, who established a small principality in the Kalinga region (present-day Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh) around the middle of the 4th century CE, specifically between circa 350 and 360 CE. His reign marks an important period in the post-Gupta decline political landscape of eastern India.

Here’s a detailed account of Vishakha Varman’s rule:

• Emergence of the Matharas: The Mathara dynasty rose to prominence in Kalinga following the South Indian campaign of the powerful Gupta emperor Samudragupta. This period of political flux created an opportunity for local chieftains to assert their independence and establish their own kingdoms. Vishakha Varman was instrumental in capitalizing on this situation.
• Establishment of the Principality: Vishakha Varman founded his principality with its headquarters at Sripura, which is identified with the modern village of Batiasripua near Paralakhemundi in the Ganjam district of Odisha. This strategic location allowed him to control a key part of the Kalinga region.
• Title and Early Reign: Vishakha Varman assumed the title of “Sri Maharaja,” indicating his royal status, though his initial political career was as a ruler of a relatively modest territory. This suggests a gradual consolidation of power rather than an immediate, widespread dominion.
• Territorial Organization: His territory was divided into several administrative units known as Panchalis. One notable Panchali was Karosodaka, which is also mentioned in later records of the early Ganga kings as being part of Kalinga.
• Administrative and Religious Activities: An inscription from the seventh year of his reign records that Vishakha Varman donated the village of Tapoyoka (located within the Karosodaka Panchali) to five Brahmanas. This act of land grant (Brahmadeya) was a common practice among ancient Indian rulers, signifying religious piety and a means of legitimizing their rule while also promoting Brahmanical culture.
• Extent of Rule: While he assumed the title of “Sri Maharaja,” there is no evidence to suggest that Vishakha Varman ever adopted the grander title of “Lord of Kalinga” (Kalingadhipati), which was used by later powerful rulers of the region. This indicates that his kingdom, though significant for its time, might not have encompassed the entirety of the historical Kalinga. He is believed to have ruled for approximately a decade.
• Succession: Vishakha Varman was succeeded by Umavarman (c. 360-395 CE), who was likely his son. Umavarman went on to expand the Mathara influence further and is sometimes considered the true founder of the dynasty’s lasting power.

In summary, Vishakha Varman was a foundational figure for the Mathara dynasty in Kalinga. He carved out a distinct principality in a politically fragmented era, established an administrative structure, and patronized religious institutions, laying the groundwork for the subsequent expansion and consolidation of Mathara power in the region that constitutes parts of modern-day Odisha.

• Umavarman (c. 360-395 CE): Likely Vishakha Varman’s son, Umavarman is regarded as the first great ruler of the Mathara dynasty. His reign saw Kalinga enter a period of political vigor, with its influence felt in Eastern India and the Deccan. His known inscription was issued from Simhapura.

Umavarman (c. 360-395 CE) was a significant ruler of the Mathara dynasty, which emerged in the Kalinga region (present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh) in eastern India during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is considered the first great ruler of this dynasty, credited with reviving the historical tradition of Kalinga after a period of obscurity following the decline of the Chedi rule.

Early Reign and Expansion: Umavarman likely succeeded Maharaja Visakhavannan, possibly his father. He began his rule as a modest ruler with his headquarters at Sripura (identified with modern Batiasripua in the Ganjam district). However, he was an ambitious monarch who capitalized on the political changes of his time to expand his territory.

• Sixth Regnal Year: By his sixth regnal year, Umavarman had extended his kingdom to the Svetaka region (modern Chikiti in Ganjam district) and established a new capital at Sunagara. From Sunagara, he issued two of his copper plate grants, the Baranga grant and the Dhavalapeta grant, donating lands to Brahmins. The Dhavalapeta grant mentions Kottura, a place near Mount Mahendra, indicating his authority extended to that region.
• Ninth Regnal Year: His territory further expanded south to include the modern Tekkali region. He then shifted his headquarters from Sunagara to Vardhamanpur, from where he issued his Tekkali copper plate grant.
• Thirtieth Regnal Year: By his thirtieth regnal year, Umavarman’s domain encompassed the present-day Srikakulam district. It was at this point that he declared himself the “Lord of Kalinga” (Kalingadhipati) and moved his capital from Vardhamanpura to Simhapura (Vijaya Simhapura). From this new capital, he issued his Vrihatproshtha grant, reaffirming his title.

Rule over Odisha (Kalinga): Umavarman indeed ruled over a significant part of what constitutes present-day Odisha. The Kalinga region, under his sway, included areas between the present-day Ganjam district of Odisha in the north and the Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh in the south. His kingdom, at its peak, comprised the Ganjam and Gajapati districts of Odisha and the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh. He brought Kalinga back into a vigorous political career, and the Mathara dynasty, under his leadership, established a functional administrative structure, dividing the kingdom into territorial units like “Panchali,” “Bhoga,” and “Vishaya.”

Significance: Umavarman’s reign, lasting for approximately 35 years until circa 395 CE, was crucial for the Mathara dynasty. He laid the foundation for a strong empire, and his successors, like Saktivarman, further built upon his achievements, expanding the Mathara kingdom and enhancing its prestige. He is recognized for his administrative reforms and patronage of Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions, as evidenced by his land grants to Brahmins. With Umavarman, Kalinga re-emerged as a significant power in Eastern India.

• Shankaravarman (c. 395-400 CE): He succeeded Umavarman.

Shankaravarman of the Mathara Dynasty (c. 395-400 CE)

• Period of Rule: Approximately 395-400 CE. This places him in a period where the Mathara dynasty was rising to prominence in the Kalinga region (present-day Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh).
• Dynasty: He belonged to the Mathara dynasty, a significant power in Kalinga during the 4th and 5th centuries CE.
• Relationship to Successors: Shankaravarman is primarily known as the father of Shaktivarman, a prominent Mathara ruler who bore the title “Kalingadhipati” (Lord of Kalinga). Interestingly, Shankaravarman himself is not recorded to have held any explicit royal titles in the inscriptions that mention him. This suggests he might have been an early, perhaps even foundational, figure of the dynasty, or a chieftain whose son formally established the kingdom and assumed royal titles.
• Territory: The Mathara dynasty controlled parts of the Kalinga region, specifically the area between the present-day Ganjam district of Odisha in the north and the Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh in the south. Their capital was likely Pishtapura (modern Pithapuram) or Simhapura.
• Historical Context: The rise of the Matharas occurred after Samudragupta’s southern campaign, which led to a political vacuum in the region. This created an opportunity for local powers like the Matharas to assert their independence.
• Limited Direct Information: Direct information specifically detailing Shankaravarman’s reign is scarce. He is primarily known through the inscriptions of his son, Shaktivarman, which mention him as the latter’s father. This lack of detailed accounts for Shankaravarman himself is common for early rulers of emerging dynasties where their successors consolidate power and leave more extensive records.

In summary, Shankaravarman (c. 395-400 CE) of the Mathara dynasty was an early figure in the history of Kalinga (Odisha), primarily recognized as the father of the more prominent ruler Shaktivarman. His existence is confirmed by inscriptions, but details of his direct rule are limited, suggesting he might have been a foundational leader rather than a king with an extensive, well-documented reign.

• Shaktivarman (c. 400-420 CE): Bearing the title “Kalingadhipati” (Lord of Kalinga), Shaktivarman is the earliest known ruler from copper-plate inscriptions. He is credited with unifying parts of Northern and Southern Kalinga. His capital was initially Simhapura, but he later moved it to Pishtapura (modern Pithapuram), a strategic decision that helped in better administration of their eastern territories. His inscription describes him as the son of Vasisthi, suggesting a matrimonial connection to the Vasistha dynasty.

Shaktivarman, who ruled approximately from 400 to 420 CE, was a significant ruler of the Mathara dynasty in the Kalinga region of eastern India. The Matharas’ territory broadly encompassed parts of present-day Odisha (specifically the Ganjam district) and Andhra Pradesh (Srikakulam district).

Here’s a detailed look at his reign and influence over what is now Odisha:

1. Earliest Known Ruler and Titles:

• Shaktivarman is considered the earliest known ruler of the Mathara dynasty.
• He held the prestigious title of Kalingadhipati (“Lord of Kalinga”), signifying his authority over the region.
• His father was Shankaravarman, who did not bear any royal title.

2. Expansion and Capital:

• Shaktivarman succeeded in uniting parts of what is now considered “Northern” and “Southern” Kalinga.
• His occupation of South Kalinga was likely aided by matrimonial relations the Matharas had with the Vasishtha dynasty, who ruled the middle Kalinga region.
• Shaktivarman is believed to have ended the Salankayana dynasty’s rule in Vengi (modern Andhra Pradesh), extending the Mathara kingdom southwards to the Krishna River. However, some historians believe the claim of his rule extending up to the Mahanadi River in the north (present-day Odisha) might be an exaggeration, suggesting a different, smaller “Mahanadi” in the Ganjam district.
• He relocated his capital from Simhapura to Pishtapura (identified with modern Pithapuram in Andhra Pradesh), from where he issued his Ragolu copper plate grant. This relocation indicates his conquests in the southern region.

3. Administration and Inscriptions:

• A copper-plate inscription from his 13th regnal year describes him as Maharajasya-Shri Shaktivarmanah.
• This inscription, composed by his minister (amatya) Arjunadatta, records the grant of the Rakaluva area (modern Ragolu) to Brahmanas. This area was located in the Kalinga vishaya (district).
• The inscription also mentions his mother was from the Vasistha dynasty (Vāsiṣṭhi), suggesting he inherited control of Pishtapura through her.

4. Significance and Legacy:

• Shaktivarman built upon the foundations laid by earlier Mathara rulers like Umavarman, strengthening the empire and enhancing the prestige and power of the Matharas.
• During his time, the Matharas were one of three imperial powers in India, alongside the Guptas in the north and the Vakatakas in central India.
• His reign established a functional administrative structure in the Kalinga region, dividing the kingdom into territorial units like Panchali, Bhoga, and Vishaya.
• He died around 420 CE and was succeeded by his son, Prabhanjanavarman.

In summary, Shaktivarman was a crucial ruler in the Mathara dynasty who significantly expanded their territorial control over the Kalinga region, which included parts of modern-day Odisha. His reign marked a period of consolidation and increased prominence for the Matharas, laying the groundwork for subsequent rulers.

• Prabhanjanavarman (c. 460-480 CE): He succeeded Shaktivarman and is described as “Sakala-Kalingadhipati” (Lord of the whole of Kalinga). His inscription records the creation of the Ningondi agrahara (Brahmana village).

Prabhanjanavarman was a significant ruler of the Mathara dynasty, which held sway over the Kalinga region (present-day coastal Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh) during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is generally dated to c. 460-480 CE.

Here’s a detailed look at his rule:

1. Succession and Title:

• Prabhanjanavarman succeeded his father, Shaktivarman, who was an early and influential ruler of the Mathara dynasty.
• He is particularly known for assuming the grandiloquent title of “Sakala-Kalingadhipati” (Lord of the whole of Kalinga), which suggests a strong assertion of his authority and perhaps a consolidation of Mathara power over a wider area of Kalinga.

2. Extent of his Rule (Odisha Connection):

• The Mathara dynasty, including Prabhanjanavarman, ruled over the Kalinga region, which historically encompasses a substantial part of present-day Odisha, particularly its southern coastal districts (like Ganjam) and extending into northern Andhra Pradesh (like Srikakulam district).
• While his father, Shaktivarman, claimed to have ruled from the Mahanadi to the Krishna River, this claim is considered an exaggeration by some historians, especially regarding the Krishna River area. However, the Mathara presence in the northern parts of Kalinga, which falls within modern Odisha, is well-established.
• Prabhanjanavarman’s only known inscription was issued from Siṃhapura (identified with modern Singupuram in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh), which served as a capital of the Matharas. This location highlights the geographical reach of the dynasty, bordering and extending into present-day Odisha.

3. Administration and Inscriptions:

• Prabhanjanavarman’s reign is primarily known through his Ningondi copper-plate inscription. This inscription records the creation of a Brahmana village (agrahara) called Ningondi. The village was described as being located on the seashore, though its exact location remains uncertain.
• The inscription also mentions Jyeshtha as an officer (daṇḍanāyaka) under the king, indicating a structured administrative setup.
• The Matharas were known for their administrative reforms, religious patronage, and cultural contributions. They issued numerous land grants to Brahmins and religious institutions, which serve as valuable historical records.

4. Religious Patronage:

• The Mathara rulers, including Prabhanjanavarman, generally patronized Vaishnavism. The Ningondi grant of Prabhanjanavarman, for instance, shows this patronage.
• Vaishnavism advanced into Kalinga under their rule and enjoyed royal support.

5. Historical Context and Significance:

• The Mathara dynasty rose to prominence in the Kalinga region after the withdrawal of Gupta emperor Samudragupta’s forces, filling the power vacuum and establishing an independent kingdom.
• Prabhanjanavarman’s rule represents a period of consolidation and assertion of power for the Matharas, as indicated by his “Sakala-Kalingadhipati” title.
• The Mathara dynasty eventually declined by the 6th century CE, facing challenges from neighboring dynasties like the Vakatakas and later the Eastern Gangas and Pitrbhaktas. Prabhanjanavarman’s successor, Anantashaktivarman, appears to have been overthrown by the Pitrbhakta king Umavarman.

In summary, Prabhanjanavarman was a significant Mathara king who ruled a substantial portion of the Kalinga region, including parts of present-day Odisha, in the mid-5th century CE. His inscriptions provide valuable insights into the political and administrative landscape of the time, and his adoption of the title “Sakala-Kalingadhipati” reflects a period of strong Mathara influence in the region.

• Anantasaktivarman (c. 420-450 CE): Another significant ruler.

Anantasaktivarman was a notable ruler of the Mathara Dynasty, which held sway over parts of the Kalinga region (present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh) during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. His reign is generally placed between c. 420-450 CE, succeeding his father, Maharaja Saktivarman.

Here’s a detailed look at his rule:

1. Succession and Early Reign:

• Anantasaktivarman inherited the Mathara kingdom from his father, Saktivarman, who had been an ambitious ruler and had significantly expanded the dynasty’s territories, possibly even unifying Northern and Southern Kalinga. Anantasaktivarman’s inscriptions indicate that he received his kingdom as a blessing from his father.

2. Territorial Extent and Capital:

• The Mathara dynasty, including Anantasaktivarman’s rule, primarily covered the Kalinga region, extending from the present-day Ganjam district of Odisha in the north to the Srikakulam district in Andhra Pradesh in the south.
• While his father Saktivarman had shifted the capital from Simhapura to Pishtapura, Anantasaktivarman appears to have faced challenges that led him to relocate his headquarters back from Pishtapura to Simhapura. This suggests a contraction of his control in the southern parts of his ancestral kingdom.
• His inscriptions mention his two significant grants: the Andhavaram plates (issued in his 14th regnal year from a military camp at Vijayapura) and the Sakunaka grant (Madras Museum plates, issued in his 28th regnal year). The location of the villages mentioned in these grants, like Andhavaram, indicates his continued presence and administration in parts of Kalinga.

3. Challenges and Decline:

• Anantasaktivarman’s reign was marked by significant political challenges. He faced pressure from neighboring dynasties, particularly the Vishnukundinas to the south. The founder of the Vishnukundina dynasty, Madhavavarman I, a powerful contemporary ruler, is believed to have fought and defeated Anantasaktivarman, along with the Pallava king Simhavarman II.
• This loss of territory, especially in South Kalinga, forced him to consolidate his position in Northern and Middle Kalinga. This period represents the beginning of the decline of the Mathara power, which had enjoyed a period of prominence under his predecessors.

4. Administration and Patronage:

• Despite the political setbacks, Anantasaktivarman maintained a structured administration, typical of the Mathara rulers. His copper plate inscriptions provide insights into the administrative machinery, including various officials like Mahabaladhikrita (commander-in-chief) and Dandanetra (general). It’s notable that his Sakunaka grant was carried out by two senior military officers, suggesting a significant role of the military in his administration, possibly due to the turbulent times.
• The Matharas were primarily Hindu, with a strong inclination towards Shaivism and Vaishnavism. Anantasaktivarman, like other Mathara rulers, was a patron of Vaishnavism, as evidenced by descriptions in his grants calling him a “devout worshipper at the lotus-feet of the God Narayana.” They also supported Brahmanical traditions through land grants to Brahmins and religious institutions.
• These inscriptions, often written in Sanskrit and Prakrit, are crucial historical sources for understanding the society, religion, and administration of the Mathara period.

5. Legacy:

• While Anantasaktivarman was unable to fully preserve the extensive empire inherited from his father, his reign represents a critical phase in the Mathara dynasty’s history. It showcases the internal and external pressures that led to their eventual decline in the 6th century CE. Nevertheless, the Matharas, including Anantasaktivarman, are credited with establishing a functional administrative structure and contributing to the cultural and religious landscape of ancient Kalinga/Odisha.

• Chandravarman (c. 450-460 CE)

Chandravarman was a ruler of the Mathara dynasty, which held sway over the Kalinga region (modern Odisha and parts of northern Andhra Pradesh) in the 5th century CE. His reign is generally placed between c. 450 and 460 CE.

Here’s a detailed look at Chandravarman and his rule:

1. The Mathara Dynasty and its Context:

• Post-Samudragupta Era: The Mathara dynasty emerged in the Kalinga region around the mid-4th century CE, following the South Indian campaign of the powerful Gupta emperor Samudragupta. While Samudragupta’s invasion had a significant impact on Kalinga, it also created a political vacuum that allowed smaller, regional powers like the Matharas to rise.
• Autonomy from Guptas: The Mathara monarchs maintained political autonomy from Gupta suzerainty, often styling themselves as “Maharajas” and “Lords of Kalinga” (Kalingadhipati), indicating their independent status.
• Administrative Structure: The Matharas were known for establishing a functional administrative structure in the Kalinga region, dividing their kingdom into territorial units such as Panchali, Bhoga, and Vishaya.

2. Chandravarman’s Place in the Mathara Lineage:

• Chandravarman succeeded Anantasaktivarman and was, in turn, succeeded by Prabhanjanavarman. This places him firmly within the established chronology of the Mathara rulers.

3. Key Information about Chandravarman’s Reign (c. 450-460 CE):

• Copper Plate Grants: Chandravarman is primarily known through his copper plate grants, notably the Bobbili and Komarti copper plate grants. These grants, issued in his fourth and sixth regnal years respectively, are crucial sources of information about his reign.
• Limited Political Activity: Interestingly, his grants do not provide extensive details about his political activities or military campaigns. This suggests a period of relative stability within the Mathara kingdom during his rule, or perhaps a lack of major recorded conflicts.
• Religious Affiliations: Chandravarman was known by the epithets “Paramabhagavata” and “Parmadaivata.” These titles indicate his strong devotion, likely to Vishnu (Paramabhagavata) and a supreme deity (Parmadaivata), aligning with the growing prominence of Hinduism, particularly Vaishnavism, during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods.
• Capital: He ruled from Simhapura as his capital, a significant city for the Matharas.
• End of Reign: Chandravarman is believed to have died before 460 CE, at which point he was succeeded by Prabhanjanavarman, another son of Saktivarman.

4. Broader Context of 5th Century Odisha:

• Gupta Influence: While the Matharas maintained autonomy, the Gupta era significantly influenced Odisha’s cultural, artistic, and administrative landscape. Gupta architectural styles, sculptural developments, and the promotion of Hinduism (particularly Vaishnavism and Shaivism) resonated in Kalinga.
• Religious Landscape: The 5th century CE in Odisha saw the continued presence of Buddhism and Jainism, but also a notable ascendancy of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, partly due to the influence of the Gupta emperors.
• Decline of Matharas: Towards the end of the 5th century CE, the Mathara dynasty began to decline, eventually giving way to the rise of other regional powers like the Eastern Gangas and Sailodbhavas in the Kalinga region.

In summary, Chandravarman was a Mathara ruler of Kalinga in the mid-5th century CE. His reign, though not marked by major military exploits in the available records, was a period of continued Mathara rule from Simhapura, characterized by religious devotion and the issuance of copper plate grants that serve as key historical evidence. His era falls within a broader period of transition in Odisha’s history, where regional powers flourished amidst the waning influence of the Gupta Empire and the nascent rise of new dynasties.

• Nandapravanjanavarman (c. 480-498 CE)

Nandapravanjanavarman was a ruler of the Mathara dynasty in ancient Kalinga (modern-day Odisha). He is generally believed to have reigned from approximately 480 CE to 498 CE, making him the last known ruler of the Mathara dynasty.

Here’s a detailed look at his rule and its context:

The Mathara Dynasty and Kalinga

The Matharas were an important dynasty that rose to prominence in Kalinga after the decline of earlier powers like the Chedis and the impact of Samudragupta’s invasion in the 4th century CE. They played a crucial role in reviving Kalinga’s historical tradition.

• Rise of the Matharas: The dynasty began with modest rulers like Vishakhavarman (c. 350-360 CE) and gained significant strength under Umavarman (c. 360-395 CE), who expanded his territory and eventually declared himself “Lord of Kalinga” (Kalingadhipati).
• Expansion and Consolidation: Subsequent Mathara rulers like Sankarvarman (c. 395-400 CE) and especially Saktivarman (c. 400-420 CE) further expanded the Mathara kingdom. Saktivarman is credited with unifying Northern and Southern Kalinga, extending the empire from the Mahanadi River to the Krishna River, demonstrating the Matharas’ growing power.
• Decline and Successors: After Saktivarman, his son Anantasaktivarman (c. 420 CE – 455 CE) faced challenges and lost southern Kalinga. He was succeeded by Prabhanjanavarman (c. 455-480 CE), who, despite some political decline, maintained the title of “Sakala Kalingadhipati” (Lord of the Entire Kalinga).

Nandapravanjanavarman’s Reign (c. 480-498 CE)

Nandapravanjanavarman succeeded Prabhanjanavarman. While the exact relationship between them isn’t always clear in historical records, he is identified as the last ruler of the Mathara dynasty.

• Political Status: During Nandapravanjanavarman’s reign, the Mathara kingdom seems to have experienced a significant decline in its political power. Their territorial control likely reverted to a smaller scale, similar to that of Vishakhavarman and the early years of Umavarman.
• Capital: Nandapravanjanavarman is known to have established Vardhamanapura as his capital. This city had previously served as the capital for King Umavarman in his ninth regnal year.
• Title: Despite the political decline, Nandapravanjanavarman retained the prestigious title of “Sakala Kalingadhipati,” which was also used by his predecessor, Prabhanjanavarman. This suggests an attempt to maintain the legacy and prestige of the Mathara dynasty even as its actual power waned.
• End of the Matharas: The end of Nandapravanjanavarman’s reign around 498 CE marked the end of the Mathara dynasty’s rule. This period coincided with a significant political transition in the region.

The Rise of the Eastern Gangas

Towards the close of Nandapravanjanavarman’s rule, a new power, the Eastern Gangas, began to emerge and consolidate their control in the Trikalinga territory. They expanded their sway over the Kalinga region, establishing Dantapura as their capital. The year 498 CE is considered the beginning of the Ganga era, signifying the shift in regional power from the declining Matharas to the ascendant Eastern Gangas.

In summary, Nandapravanjanavarman’s reign represents the twilight of the Mathara dynasty in Kalinga. While he inherited a prestigious title, the political fortunes of his kingdom were on the wane, paving the way for the rise of the Eastern Gangas, who would go on to establish a powerful and long-lasting empire in Odisha. The Mathara rule, despite its eventual decline, is recognized for providing a sound administrative setup and fostering Sanskrit literature in the Kalinga region for approximately 150 years.

Administration and Society

The Matharas developed a well-structured administrative system:

• Officials: High state dignitaries included the Desaksapataladhikrta (provincial head of records and accounts, an office that appears to have been hereditary), Dandanayaka (a general, military commander, or judicial magistrate, sometimes also a provincial governor), and Kumaramatyas (ministers, sometimes serving as district officers or high central secretariat officials). Lower cadre officials included Chatas and Bhatas (performing duties similar to modern policemen or irregular soldiers). Dutas or Dutakas carried royal orders to local officials.
• Fiscal Units: They created new fiscal units, such as the district of Mahendrabhoga in the area of the Mahendra Mountains and Dantayavagubhoga, which likely supplied resources like ivory and rice-gruel.
• Land Grants (Agraharas): The Matharas made endowments of land and income from villages, known as agraharas, primarily to support the religious and educational activities of Brahmanas. While generally tax-free elsewhere, some Mathara agraharas were subject to taxes.
• Timekeeping: They introduced the practice of dividing the year into twelve lunar months in the mid-5th century CE, replacing the older system of three four-month units.
• Religion: The Matharas were followers of Hinduism, and their reign saw the promotion of temple construction, contributing to the early medieval architectural styles of eastern India.

Decline

The Mathara dynasty faced challenges from neighboring dynasties, including the Vasisthas and the Pitrbhaktas (who may have been rivals or successors to the Matharas), and later the Eastern Gangas. Internal conflicts and continuous invasions gradually weakened their kingdom, leading to their eventual decline by the end of the 5th or early 6th century CE. Their fall paved the way

Disclaimer Regarding the Gupta Empire and Odisha

It is important to note that the Gupta Empire, while a powerful and influential dynasty in ancient India, primarily held sway over the Gangetic plains and parts of northern and central India.

Historical evidence indicates that the Gupta Empire did not directly rule over the region that is present-day Odisha (historically known as Kalinga or Odra). Odisha maintained its own distinct political entities and cultural development throughout much of the Gupta period, often interacting with, but remaining largely independent of, Gupta direct imperial control. While there may have been instances of diplomatic relations, trade, or cultural exchange, and some minor border regions might have experienced brief periods of influence, Odisha was not an integral part of the Gupta Empire’s directly administered territories.

Any assertion of the Gupta Empire ruling over Odisha should be viewed with an understanding of this historical context and is not supported by the prevailing scholarly consensus on ancient Indian history.